Avaliação da Placa Carotídea e da Espessura Íntima-Média

A legenda da Figura 6.18C informa GSM 75, e a Tabela 6.3 informa 80. A tabela associa GSM 59 à Figura 6.19, enquanto o painel D informa 29 para a placa inteira, 19 para sua porção ecolucente e 59 para a ecodensa. Os valores foram mantidos com a origem indicada. O texto de normalização usa a adventícia em torno de 190 e sangue em torno de 4–5; o esquema também mostra saturação de intensidades em 255. O critério de úlcera de 2 × 2 mm é o conservador apresentado no livro. Limiares de intervenção e velocidades citados no contexto de 2019 não foram convertidos em conduta atual. O fechamento identifica complementos ASE e ESC. Os quadros inspirados em Feynman não são falas atribuídas a ele.

1. Comerota AJ, Cranley JJ, Katz ML, Cook SE, Sippel PJ, Hayden WG, et al. Real-time B-mode carotid imaging. A three-year multicenter experience. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 1984;1(1):84–95.
2. Ricotta JJ, Schenk EA, Ekholm SE, DeWeese JA. Angiographic and pathologic correlates in carotid artery disease. Surgery. 1986;99(3):284–292.
3. Comerota AJ, Cranley JJ, Cook SE. Real-time B-mode carotid imaging in diagnosis of cerebrovascular disease. Surgery. 1981;89(6):718–729.
4. Ricotta JJ, Bryan FA, Bond MG, Kurtz A, O’Leary DH, Raines JK, et al. Multicenter validation study of real-time (B-mode) ultrasound, arteriography, and pathologic examination. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 1987;6(5):512–520.
5. Pignoli P, Tremoli E, Poli A, Oreste P, Paoletti R. Intimal plus medial thickness of the arterial wall: a direct measurement with ultrasound imaging. Circulation. 1986; 74(6):1399–1406.
6. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Dinsmore RE, Fuster V, Glagov S, Insull W Jr, et al. A definition of advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and a histological classification of atherosclerosis. A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1995;92(5):1355–1374.
7. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Glagov S, Guyton JR, Insull W Jr, Rosenfeld ME, et al. A definition of initial, fatty streak, and intermediate lesions of atherosclerosis. A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1994;89(5):2462–2478.
8. Virmani R, Ladich ER, Burke AP, Kolodgie FD. Histopathology of carotid atherosclerotic disease. Neurosurgery. 2006;59(5 suppl 3):S219–S227, discussion S3–S13.
9. Ku DN, Giddens DP, Zarins CK, Glagov S. Pulsatile flow and atherosclerosis in the human carotid bifurcation: positive correlation between plaque location and low oscillating shear stress. Arteriosclerosis (Dallas, Tex.). 1985;5:293–302.
10. Dalager S, Paaske WP, Kristensen IB, Laurberg JM, Falk E, Dalager S, et al. Artery-related differences in atherosclerosis expression: implications for atherogenesis and dynamics in intima-media thickness. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2007;38(10):2698–2705.
11. Malek AM, Higashida RT, Phatouros CC, Lempert TE, Meyers PM, Smith WS, et al. Stent angioplasty for cervical carotid artery stenosis in high-risk symptomatic NASCETineligible patients [see comment]. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2000;31(12):3029–3033.
12. Asakura T, Karino T. Flow patterns and spatial distribution of atherosclerotic lesions in human coronary arteries. Circulation Research. 1990;66(4):1045–1066.
13. Dodge JT Jr, Brown BG, Bolson EL, Dodge HT. Lumen diameter of normal human coronary arteries. Influence of age, sex, anatomic variation, and left ventricular hypertrophy or dilation. Circulation. 1992;86(1):232–246.
14. Grottum P, Svindland A, Walloe L. Localization of early atherosclerotic lesions in the right carotid bifurcation in humans. Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica. Section A, Pathology. 1983;91(1):65–70.
15. Krejza J, Arkuszewski M, Kasner SE, Weigele J, Ustymowicz A, Hurst RW, et al. Carotid artery diameter in men and women and the relation to body and neck size. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2006;37(4):1103–1105.
16. Virmani R, Finn AV, Kolodgie FD. Carotid plaque stabilization and progression after stroke or TIA. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2009;29(1):3–6.
17. Virmani R, Burke AP, Kolodgie FD, Farb A. Vulnerable plaque: the pathology of unstable coronary lesions. Journal of Interventional Cardiology. 2002;15(6):439–446.
18. Finn AV, Nakano M, Narula J, Kolodgie FD, Virmani R. Concept of vulnerable/unstable plaque. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2010;30(7):1282–1292.
19. Virmani R, Kolodgie FD, Burke AP, Farb A, Schwartz SM. Lessons from sudden coronary death: a comprehensive morphological classification scheme for atherosclerotic lesions. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2000;20(5):1262–1275.
20. Lusby RJ, Ferrell LD, Ehrenfeld WK, Stoney RJ, Wylie EJ. Carotid plaque hemorrhage. Its role in production of cerebral ischemia. Archives of Surgery. 1982;117(11): 1479–1488.
21. Svindland A. Localization of atherosclerotic lesions in three cerebral arterial bifurcations. Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica. Section A, Pathology. 1984;92(3):177–183.
22. Svindland A, Torvik A. Atherosclerotic carotid disease in asymptomatic individuals: an histological study of 53 cases. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 1988;78(6): 506–517.
23. Verhoeven B, Hellings WE, Moll FL, de Vries JP, de Kleijn DPV, de Bruin P, et al. Carotid atherosclerotic plaques in patients with transient ischemic attacks and stroke have unstable characteristics compared with plaques in asymptomatic and amaurosis fugax patients. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2005;42(6):1075–1081.
24. Hellings WE, Ackerstaff RGA, Pasterkamp G, De Vries JPPM, Moll FL. The carotid atherosclerotic plaque and microembolisation during carotid stenting. Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery. 2006;47(2):115–126.
25. Hellings WE, Peeters W, Moll FL, Piers SRD, van Setten J, Van der Spek PJ, et al. Composition of carotid atherosclerotic plaque is associated with cardiovascular outcome: a prognostic study. Circulation. 2010;121(17):1941–1950.
26. Inzitari D, Eliasziw M, Gates P, Sharpe BL, Chan RK, Meldrum HE, et al. The causes and risk of stroke in patients with asymptomatic internal-carotid-artery stenosis. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. New England Journal of Medicine. 2000;342(23):1693–1700.
27. Bluth EI, Kay D, Merritt CR, Sullivan M, Farr G, Mills NL, et al. Sonographic characterization of carotid plaque: detection of hemorrhage. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1986;146(5):1061–1065.
28. Redgrave JNE, Lovett JK, Gallagher PJ, Rothwell PM. Histological assessment of 526 symptomatic carotid plaques in relation to the nature and timing of ischemic symptoms: the Oxford plaque study. Circulation. 2006;113(19):2320–2328.
29. Hellings WE, Moll FL, de Kleijn DPV, Pasterkamp G. 10-years experience with the Athero-Express study. Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy. 2012;2(1):63–73.
30. Peeters W, Hellings WE, de Kleijn DPV, de Vries JPPM, Moll FL, Vink A, et al. Carotid atherosclerotic plaques stabilize after stroke: insights into the natural process of atherosclerotic plaque stabilization. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2009;29(1):128–133.
31. Burke AP, Farb A, Malcom GT, Liang YH, Smialek J, Virmani R. Coronary risk factors and plaque morphology in men with coronary disease who died suddenly. New England Journal of Medicine. 1997;336(18):1276–1282.
32. Davies MJ, Thomas A. Thrombosis and acute coronaryartery lesions in sudden cardiac ischemic death. New England Journal of Medicine. 1984;310(18):1137–1140.
33. Vavuranakis M, Sigala F, Vrachatis DA, Papaioannou TG, Filis K, Kavantzas N, et al. Quantitative analysis of carotid plaque vasa vasorum by CEUS and correlation with histology after endarterectomy. VASA. Zeitschrift für Gefässkrankheiten. 2013;42(3):184–195.
34. King A, Markus HS. Doppler embolic signals in cerebrovascular disease and prediction of stroke risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2009;40(12):3711–3717.
35. Jayasooriya G, Thapar A, Shalhoub J, Davies AH. Silent cerebral events in asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2011;54(1):227–236.
36. Markus HS, King A, Shipley M, Topakian R, Cullinane M, Reihill S, et al. Asymptomatic embolisation for prediction of stroke in the Asymptomatic Carotid Emboli Study (ACES): a prospective observational study. Lancet Neurology. 2010;9(7):663–671.
37. Markus HS, MacKinnon A. Asymptomatic embolization detected by Doppler ultrasound predicts stroke risk in symptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2005;36(5):971–975.
38. Topakian R, King A, Kwon SU, Schaafsma A, Shipley M, Markus HS, et al. Ultrasonic plaque echolucency and emboli signals predict stroke in asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Neurology. 2011;77(8):751–758.
39. Lovblad K-O, Mendes-Pereira V, Garibotto V, Assal F, Willi J-P, Stztajzel R, et al. Neuroimaging of the vulnerable plaque. Current Vascular Pharmacology. 2015; 13(2):182–191.
40. Truijman MTB, Kooi ME, van Dijk AC, de Rotte AAJ, van der Kolk AG, Liem MI, et al. Plaque At RISK (PARISK): prospective multicenter study to improve diagnosis of high-risk carotid plaques. International Journal of Stroke. 2014;9(6):747–754.
41. van den Bouwhuijsen QJA, Bos D, Ikram MA, Hofman A, Krestin GP, Franco OH, et al. Coexistence of calcification, intraplaque hemorrhage and lipid core within the asymptomatic atherosclerotic carotid plaque: the Rotterdam Study. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2015;39(5–6):319–324.
42. Cai J, Hatsukami TS, Ferguson MS, Kerwin WS, Saam T, Chu B, et al. In vivo quantitative measurement of intact fibrous cap and lipid-rich necrotic core size in atherosclerotic carotid plaque: comparison of high-resolution, contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and histology. Circulation. 2005;112(22):3437–3444.
43. Coombs BD, Rapp JH, Ursell PC, Reilly LM, Saloner D. Structure of plaque at carotid bifurcation: high-resolution MRI with histological correlation. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2001;32(11):2516–2521.
44. Polak JF, Post WS, Carr JJ, Szklo M, O’Leary DH. Associations of common carotid intima-media thickness with coronary heart disease risk factors and events vary with distance from the carotid bulb. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 2014;27(9):991–997.
45. Polak JF, Pencina MJ, Meisner A, Pencina KM, Brown LS, Wolf PA, et al. Associations of carotid artery intimamedia thickness (IMT) with risk factors and prevalent cardiovascular disease: comparison of mean common carotid artery IMT with maximum internal carotid artery IMT. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 2010;29(12): 1759–1768.
46. Touboul PJ, Hennerici MG, Meairs S, Adams H, Amarenco P, Desvarieux M, et al. Mannheim intima-media thickness consensus.[see comment]. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2004;18(4):346–349.
47. Mathiesen EB, Johnsen SH, Wilsgaard T, Bonaa KH, Lochen M-L, Njolstad I. Carotid plaque area and intimamedia thickness in prediction of first-ever ischemic stroke: a 10-year follow-up of 6584 men and women: the Tromso study. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2011; 42(4):972–978.
48. Spence JD, Eliasziw M, DiCicco M, Hackam DG, Galil R, Lohmann T. Carotid plaque area: a tool for targeting and evaluating vascular preventive therapy. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2002;33(12):2916–2922.
49. Bond MG, Strickland HL, Wilmoth SK, Safrit A, Phillips R, Szostak L. Interventional clinical trials using noninvasive ultrasound end points: the Multicenter Isradipine/Diuretic Atherosclerosis Study. The MIDAS Research Group. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology. 1990;15(suppl 1):S30–S33.
50. Furberg CD, Adams HP Jr, Applegate WB, Byington RP, Espeland MA, Hartwell T, et al. Effect of lovastatin on early carotid atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events. Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Progression Study (ACAPS) Research Group. Circulation. 1994;90(4):1679–1687.
51. Gronholdt ML, Wiebe BM, Laursen H, Nielsen TG, Schroeder TV, Sillesen H. Lipid-rich carotid artery plaques appear echolucent on ultrasound B-mode images and may be associated with intraplaque haemorrhage. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 1997;14(6):439–445.
52. el Barghouty N, Nicolaides A, Bahal V, Geroulakos G, Androulakis A. The identification of the high risk carotid plaque. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 1996;11(4):470–478.
53. Gronholdt ML, Nordestgaard BG, Nielsen TG, Sillesen H. Echolucent carotid artery plaques are associated with elevated levels of fasting and postprandial triglyceriderich lipoproteins. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1996;27(12):2166–2172.
54. Gronholdt ML, Nordestgaard BG, Schroeder TV, Vorstrup S, Sillesen H. Ultrasonic echolucent carotid plaques predict future strokes. Circulation. 2001;104(1):68–73.
55. Gupta A, Kesavabhotla K, Baradaran H, Kamel H, Pandya A, Giambrone AE, et al. Plaque echolucency and stroke risk in asymptomatic carotid stenosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2015;46(1):91–97.
56. Kofoed SC, Gronholdt M-LM, Bismuth J, Wilhjelm JE, Sillesen H, Nordestgaard BG. Echolucent, rupture-prone carotid plaques associated with elevated triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, particularly in women. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2002;36(4):783–792.
57. Polak JF, Shemanski L, O’Leary DH, Lefkowitz D, Price TR, Savage PJ, et al. Hypoechoic plaque at US of the carotid artery: an independent risk factor for incident stroke in adults aged 65 years or older. Cardiovascular Health Study. [Erratum appears in Radiology 1998;209(1):288–289.] Radiology. 1998;208(3):649–654.
58. Kakkos SK, Griffin MB, Nicolaides AN, Kyriacou E, Sabetai MM, Tegos T, et al. The size of juxtaluminal hypoechoic area in ultrasound images of asymptomatic carotid plaques predicts the occurrence of stroke. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2013;57(3):609–618, e1; discussion 17–18.
59. Nicolaides AN, Kakkos SK, Griffin M, Sabetai M, Dhanjil S, Thomas DJ, et al. Effect of image normalization on carotid plaque classification and the risk of ipsilateral hemispheric ischemic events: results from the asymptomatic carotid stenosis and risk of stroke study. Vascular. 2005;13(4):211–221.
60. Leong SS, Vijayananthan A, Yaakup NA, Shah N, Ng KH, Acharya UR, et al. Observer performance in characterization of carotid plaque texture and surface characteristics with 3D versus 2D ultrasound. Computers in Biology and Medicine. 2016;78:58–64.
61. Cattaneo M, Staub D, Porretta AP, Gallino JM, Santini P, Limoni C, et al. Data on consistency among different methods to assess atherosclerotic plaque echogenicity on standard ultrasound and intraplaque neovascularization on contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging in human carotid artery. Data in Brief. 2016;9:563–567.
62. Arnold JA, Modaresi KB, Thomas N, Taylor PR, Padayachee TS. Carotid plaque characterization by duplex scanning: observer error may undermine current clinical trials. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1999;30(1): 61–65.
63. Diethrich EB, Pauliina Margolis M, Reid DB, Burke A, Ramaiah V, Rodriguez-Lopez JA, et al. Virtual histology intravascular ultrasound assessment of carotid artery disease: the Carotid Artery Plaque Virtual Histology Evaluation (CAPITAL) study. Journal of Endovascular Therapy. 2007;14(5):676–686.
64. Reilly LM, Lusby RJ, Hughes L, Ferrell LD, Stoney RJ, Ehrenfeld WK. Carotid plaque histology using real-time ultrasonography. Clinical and therapeutic implications. American Journal of Surgery. 1983;146(2):188–193.
65. de Bray J, Baud JM, Dauzat M, for the Consensus Conference. Consensus concerning the morphology and the risk of carotid plaquues. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 1997;1997(7):289–296.
66. Gray-Weale AC, Graham JC, Burnett JR, Byrne K, Lusby RJ. Carotid artery atheroma: comparison of preoperative B-mode ultrasound appearance with carotid endarterectomy specimen pathology. Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery. 1988;29(6):676–681.
67. AbuRahma AF, Wulu JT Jr, Crotty B. Carotid plaque ultrasonic heterogeneity and severity of stenosis. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2002;33(7):1772–1775.
68. Langsfeld M, Gray-Weale AC, Lusby RJ. The role of plaque morphology and diameter reduction in the development of new symptoms in asymptomatic carotid arteries. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 1989;9(4):548–557.
69. Polak JF, O’Leary DH, Kronmal RA, Wolfson SK, Bond MG, Tracy RP, et al. Sonographic evaluation of carotid artery atherosclerosis in the elderly: relationship of disease severity to stroke and transient ischemic attack. Radiology. 1993;188(2):363–370.
70. Geroulakos G, Ramaswami G, Nicolaides A, James K, Labropoulos N, Belcaro G, et al. Characterization of symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid plaques using high-resolution real-time ultrasonography. The British Journal of Surgery. 1993;80(10):1274–1277.
71. de Bray JM, Baud JM, Delanoy P, Camuzat JP, Dehans V, Descamp-Le Chevoir J, et al. Reproducibility in ultrasonic characterization of carotid plaques. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 1998;8(5):273–277.
72. Kakkos SK, Nicolaides AN, Geroulakos G, Griffin MB, Tegos TJ. Effect of computer monitor brightness on visual (subjective) carotid plaque characterization. Journal of Clinical Ultrasound. 2011;39(9):497–501.
73. Kakkos SK, Nicolaides AN, Kyriacou E, Pattichis CS, Geroulakos G. Effect of zooming on texture features of ultrasonic images. Cardiovascular Ultrasound. 2006;4:8.
74. Mayor I, Momjian S, Lalive P, Sztajzel R. Carotid plaque: comparison between visual and grey-scale median analysis. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology. 2003;29(7):961–966.
75. Lovett JK, Gallagher PJ, Rothwell PM. Reproducibility of histological assessment of carotid plaque: implications for studies of carotid imaging. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2004;18(2):117–123.
76. Lovett JK, Redgrave JNE, Rothwell PM. A critical appraisal of the performance, reporting, and interpretation of studies comparing carotid plaque imaging with histology. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2005;36(5):1091–1097.
77. el Barghouti N, Nicolaides AN, Tegos T, Geroulakos G. The relative effect of carotid plaque heterogeneity and echogenicity on ipsilateral cerebral infarction and symptoms of cerebrovascular disease. International Angiology. 1996;15(4):300–306.
78. Grogan JK, Shaalan WE, Cheng H, Gewertz B, Desai T, Schwarze G, et al. B-mode ultrasonographic characterization of carotid atherosclerotic plaques in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2005;42(3):435–441.
79. Sztajzel R, Momjian S, Momjian-Mayor I, Murith N, Djebaili K, Boissard G, et al. Stratified gray-scale median analysis and color mapping of the carotid plaque: correlation with endarterectomy specimen histology of 28 patients. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2005;36(4):741–745.
80. Salem MK, Bown MJ, Sayers RD, West K, Moore D, Nicolaides A, et al. Identification of patients with a histologically unstable carotid plaque using ultrasonic plaque image analysis. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2014;48(2):118–125.
81. Biasi GM, Sampaolo A, Mingazzini P, De Amicis P, El-Barghouty N, Nicolaides AN. Computer analysis of ultrasonic plaque echolucency in identifying high risk carotid bifurcation lesions. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 1999;17(6):476–479.
82. Sabetai MM, Tegos TJ, Nicolaides AN, El-Atrozy TS, Dhanjil S, Griffin M, et al. Hemispheric symptoms and carotid plaque echomorphology. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2000;31(1 Pt 1):39–49.
83. Biasi GM, Froio A, Diethrich EB, Deleo G, Galimberti S, Mingazzini P, et al. Carotid plaque echolucency increases the risk of stroke in carotid stenting: the Imaging in Carotid Angioplasty and Risk of Stroke (ICAROS) study. Circulation. 2004;110(6):756–762.
84. Sztajzel R, Momjian-Mayor I, Comelli M, Momjian S. Correlation of cerebrovascular symptoms and microembolic signals with the stratified gray-scale median analysis and color mapping of the carotid plaque. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2006;37(3):824–829.
85. Russell DA, Wijeyaratne SM, Gough MJ. Relationship of carotid plaque echomorphology to presenting symptom. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2010;39(2):134–138.
86. Kolkert JL, Meerwaldt R, Loonstra J, Schenk M, van der Palen J, van den Dungen JJ, et al. Relation between B-mode gray-scale median and clinical features of carotid stenosis vulnerability. Annals of Vascular Surgery. 2014;28(2):404–410.
87. Fosse E, Johnsen SH, Stensland-Bugge E, Joakimsen O, Mathiesen EB, Arnesen E, et al. Repeated visual and computer-assisted carotid plaque characterization in a longitudinal population-based ultrasound study: the Tromso study. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology. 2006;32(1):3–11.
88. Momjian I, Momjian S, Albanese S, Comelli M, Lovblad K, Sztajzel R. Visual analysis or semi-automated gray-scalebased color mapping of the carotid plaque: which method correlates the best with the presence of cerebrovascular symptoms and/or lesions on MRI? Journal of Neuroimaging. 2009;19(2):119–126.
89. Momjian-Mayor I, Kuzmanovic I, Momjian S, Bonvin C, Albanese S, Bichsel D, et al. Accuracy of a novel risk index combining degree of stenosis of the carotid artery and plaque surface echogenicity. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2012;43(5):1260–1265.
90. Makris GC, Lavida A, Griffin M, Geroulakos G, Nicolaides AN. Three-dimensional ultrasound imaging for the evaluation of carotid atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2011;219(2):377–383.
91. Adams HP Jr, Bendixen BH, Kappelle LJ, Biller J, Love BB, Gordon DL, et al. Classification of subtype of acute ischemic stroke. Definitions for use in a multicenter clinical trial. TOAST. Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1993;24(1):35–41.
92. Streifler JY, Eliasziw M, Fox AJ, Benavente OR, Hachinski VC, Ferguson GG, et al. Angiographic detection of carotid plaque ulceration. Comparison with surgical observations in a multicenter study. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1994;25(6):1130–1132.
93. Freilinger TM, Schindler A, Schmidt C, Grimm J, Cyran C, Schwarz F, et al. Prevalence of nonstenosing, complicated atherosclerotic plaques in cryptogenic stroke. JACC. Cardiovascular Imaging. 2012;5(4):397–405.
94. Lindsay AC, Biasiolli L, Lee JMS, Kylintireas I, MacIntosh BJ, Watt H, et al. Plaque features associated with increased cerebral infarction after minor stroke and TIA: a prospective, case-control, 3-T carotid artery MR imaging study. JACC. Cardiovascular Imaging. 2012;5(4):388–396.
95. O’Leary DH, Holen J, Ricotta JJ, Roe S, Schenk EA. Carotid bifurcation disease: prediction of ulceration with B-mode US. Radiology. 1987;162(2):523–525.
96. Sitzer M, Muller W, Rademacher J, Siebler M, Hort W, Kniemeyer HW, et al. Color-flow Doppler-assisted duplex imaging fails to detect ulceration in high-grade internal carotid artery stenosis. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 1996;23(3):461–465.
97. Widder B, Paulat K, Hackspacher J, Hamann H, Hutschenreiter S, Kreutzer C, et al. Morphological characterization of carotid artery stenoses by ultrasound duplex scanning. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology. 1990;16(4):349–354.
98. O’Donnell TF Jr, Erdoes L, Mackey WC, McCullough J, Shepard A, Heggerick P, et al. Correlation of B-mode ultrasound imaging and arteriography with pathologic findings at carotid endarterectomy. Archives of Surgery. 1985;120(4):443–449.
99. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. New England Journal of Medicine. 1991; 325(7):445–453.
100. Muraki M, Mikami T, Yoshimoto T, Fujimoto S, Tokuda K, Kaneko S, et al. New criteria for the sonographic diagnosis of a plaque ulcer in the extracranial carotid artery. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2012;198(5):1161–1166.
101. Schminke U, Motsch L, Hilker L, Kessler C. Threedimensional ultrasound observation of carotid artery plaque ulceration. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2000;31(7):1651–1655.
102. Kuk M, Wannarong T, Beletsky V, Parraga G, Fenster A, Spence JD. Volume of carotid artery ulceration as a predictor of cardiovascular events. [Erratum appears in Stroke. 2014;45(6):e112.] Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2014;45(5):1437–1441.
103. Kanber B, Hartshorne TC, Horsfield MA, Naylor AR, Robinson TG, Ramnarine KV. Quantitative assessment of carotid plaque surface irregularities and correlation to cerebrovascular symptoms. Cardiovascular Ultrasound. 2013;11:38.
104. Ibrahimi P, Jashari F, Johansson E, Gronlund C, Bajraktari G, Wester P, et al. Vulnerable plaques in the contralateral carotid arteries in symptomatic patients: a detailed ultrasound analysis. Atherosclerosis. 2014;235(2):526–531.
105. Prabhakaran S, Rundek T, Ramas R, Elkind MSV, Paik MC, Boden-Albala B, et al. Carotid plaque surface irregularity predicts ischemic stroke: the northern Manhattan study. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2006;37(11):2696–2701.
106. Howard DPJ, van Lammeren GW, Rothwell PM, Redgrave JN, Moll FL, de Vries J-PPM, et al. Symptomatic carotid atherosclerotic disease: correlations between plaque composition and ipsilateral stroke risk. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2015;46(1):182–189.
107. Vancraeynest D, Pasquet A, Roelants V, Gerber BL, Vanoverschelde J-LJ. Imaging the vulnerable plaque. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2011;57(20):1961–1979.
108. Staub D, Schinkel AFL, Coll B, Coli S, van der Steen AFW, Reed JD, et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of the vasa vasorum: from early atherosclerosis to the identification of unstable plaques. JACC. Cardiovascular Imaging. 2010;3(7):761–771.
109. Shah F, Balan P, Weinberg M, Reddy V, Neems R, Feinstein M, et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of atherosclerotic carotid plaque neovascularization: a new surrogate marker of atherosclerosis? Vascular Medicine. 2007;12(4):291–297.
110. Cattaneo M, Staub D, Porretta AP, Gallino JM, Santini P, Limoni C, et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of intraplaque neovascularization and its correlation to plaque echogenicity in human carotid arteries atherosclerosis. International Journal of Cardiology. 2016;223:917–922.
111. Nakamura J, Nakamura T, Deyama J, Fujioka D, Kawabata K, Obata JE, et al. Assessment of carotid plaque neovascularization using quantitative analysis of contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging is useful for risk stratification in patients with coronary artery disease. International Journal of Cardiology. 2015;195:113–119.
112. van den Oord SCH, Akkus Z, Renaud G, Bosch JG, van der Steen AFW, Sijbrands EJG, et al. Assessment of carotid atherosclerosis, intraplaque neovascularization, and plaque ulceration using quantitative contrast-enhanced ultrasound in asymptomatic patients with diabetes mellitus. European Heart Journal Cardiovascular Imaging. 2014; 15(11):1213–1218.
113. Li C, He W, Guo D, Chen L, Jin X, Wang W, et al. Quantification of carotid plaque neovascularization using contrastenhanced ultrasound with histopathologic validation. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology. 2014;40(8):1827–1833.
114. Ritter MA, Theismann K, Schmiedel M, Ringelstein EB, Dittrich R. Vascularization of carotid plaque in recently symptomatic patients is associated with the occurrence of transcranial microembolic signals. European Journal of Neurology. 2013;20(8):1218–1221.
115. Jaipersad AS, Shantsila A, Silverman S, Lip GYH, Shantsila E. Evaluation of carotid plaque neovascularization using contrast ultrasound. Angiology. 2013;64(6):447–450.
116. Wasserman BA, Wityk RJ, Trout HH 3rd, Virmani R. Low-grade carotid stenosis: looking beyond the lumen with MRI. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2005; 36(11):2504–2513.
117. Geroulakos G, Domjan J, Nicolaides A, Stevens J, Labropoulos N, Ramaswami G, et al. Ultrasonic carotid artery plaque structure and the risk of cerebral infarction on computed tomography. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 1994;20(2):263–266.
118. El-Barghouty NM, Levine T, Ladva S, Flanagan A, Nicolaides A. Histological verification of computerised carotid plaque characterisation. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 1996;11(4):414–416.
119. Wilhjelm JE, Gronholdt ML, Wiebe B, Jespersen SK, Hansen LK, Sillesen H. Quantitative analysis of ultrasound B-mode images of carotid atherosclerotic plaque: correlation with visual classification and histological examination. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 1998; 17(6):910–922.
120. Yao J, van Sambeek MR, Dall’Agata A, van Dijk LC, Kozakova M, Koudstaal PJ, et al. Three-dimensional ultrasound study of carotid arteries before and after endarterectomy; analysis of stenotic lesions and surgical impact on the vessel. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1998;29(10):2026–2031.
121. Rakebrandt F, Crawford DC, Havard D, Coleman D, Woodcock JP. Relationship between ultrasound texture classification images and histology of atherosclerotic plaque. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology. 2000;26(9):1393–1402.
122. Aburahma AF, Thiele SP, Wulu JT Jr. Prospective controlled study of the natural history of asymptomatic 60% to 69% carotid stenosis according to ultrasonic plaque morphology. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2002;36(3):437–442.
123. Gronholdt ML, Nordestgaard BG, Wiebe BM, Wilhjelm JE, Sillesen H. Echo-lucency of computerized ultrasound images of carotid atherosclerotic plaques are associated with increased levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins as well as increased plaque lipid content. Circulation. 1998;97(1):34–40.
124. Doonan RJ, Dawson AJ, Kyriacou E, Nicolaides AN, Corriveau MM, Steinmetz OK, et al. Association of ultrasonic texture and echodensity features between sides in patients with bilateral carotid atherosclerosis. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2013;46(3):299–305.
125. Crisby M, Nordin-Fredriksson G, Shah PK, Yano J, Zhu J, Nilsson J. Pravastatin treatment increases collagen content and decreases lipid content, inflammation, metalloproteinases, and cell death in human carotid plaques: implications for plaque stabilization. Circulation. 2001;103(7):926–933.
126. Poli A, Tremoli E, Colombo A, Sirtori M, Pignoli P, Paoletti R. Ultrasonographic measurement of the common carotid artery wall thickness in hypercholesterolemic patients. A new model for the quantitation and follow-up of preclinical atherosclerosis in living human subjects. Atherosclerosis. 1988;70(3):253–261.
127. Polak JF, Szklo M, O’Leary DH. Associations of coronary heart disease with common carotid artery near and far wall intima-media thickness: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 2015;28(9):1114–1121.
128. Howard G, Sharrett AR, Heiss G, Evans GW, Chambless LE, Riley WA, et al. Carotid artery intimal-medial thickness distribution in general populations as evaluated by B-mode ultrasound. ARIC Investigators. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1993;24(9):1297–1304.
129. Bots ML, Evans GW, Riley WA, Grobbee DE. Carotid intima-media thickness measurements in intervention studies: design options, progression rates, and sample size considerations: a point of view.[see comment]. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2003;34(12):2985– 2994.
130. Wald DS, Bestwick JP. Carotid ultrasound screening for coronary heart disease: results based on a meta-analysis of 18 studies and 44,861 subjects. Journal of Medical Screening. 2009;16(3):147–154.
131. Den Ruijter HM, Peters SA, Anderson TJ, Britton AR, Dekker JM, Eijkemans MJ, et al. Common carotid intimamedia thickness measurements in cardiovascular risk prediction: a meta-analysis. [Erratum appears in JAMA. 2013;310(16):1739.] JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2012;308(8):796–803.
132. Lorenz MW, Bickel H, Bots ML, Breteler MMB, Catapano AL, Desvarieux M, et al. Individual progression of carotid intima media thickness as a surrogate for vascular risk (PROG-IMT): rationale and design of a meta-analysis project. American Heart Journal. 2010;159(5):730–736, e2.
133. Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, Selzer RH, Liu C, Alaupovic P, et al. Reduction in carotid arterial wall thickness using lovastatin and dietary therapy: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1996;124(6):548–556.
134. Kang S, Wu Y, Li X. Effects of statin therapy on the progression of carotid atherosclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Atherosclerosis. 2004;177(2):433–442.
135. Bedi US, Singh M, Singh PP, Bhuriya R, Bahekar A, Molnar J, et al. Effects of statins on progression of carotid atherosclerosis as measured by carotid intimal–medial thickness: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2010;15(3):268–273.
136. Goldberger ZD, Valle JA, Dandekar VK, Chan PS, Ko DT, Nallamothu BK. Are changes in carotid intima-media thickness related to risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction? A critical review and meta-regression analysis. American Heart Journal. 2010;160(4):701–714.
137. Polak JF, Person SD, Wei GS, Godreau A, Jacobs DR Jr, Harrington A, et al. Segment-specific associations of carotid intima-media thickness with cardiovascular risk factors: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2010;41(1):9–15.
138. Stein JH, Korcarz CE, Hurst RT, Lonn E, Kendall CB, Mohler ER, et al. Use of carotid ultrasound to identify subclinical vascular disease and evaluate cardiovascular disease risk: a consensus statement from the American Society of Echocardiography Carotid Intima-Media Thickness Task Force. Endorsed by the Society for Vascular Medicine. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 2008;21(2):93–111, quiz 89–90.
139. Manolio TA, Arnold AM, Post W, Bertoni AG, Schreiner PJ, Sacco RL, et al. Ethnic differences in the relationship of carotid atherosclerosis to coronary calcification: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2008;197(1):132–138.
140. Polak JF, O’Leary DH. Carotid Intima-Media Thickness as Surrogate for and Predictor of CVD. Global Heart. 2016;11(3):295–312, e3.
141. Polak JF, Johnson C, Harrington A, Wong Q, O’Leary DH, Burke G, et al. Changes in carotid intima-media thickness during the cardiac cycle: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2012;1(4):e001420.
142. Polak JF, Meisner A, Pencina MJ, Wolf PA, D’Agostino RB. Variations in common carotid artery intima-media thickness during the cardiac cycle: implications for cardiovascular risk assessment. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 2012;25(9):1023–1028.
143. Polak JF, Szklo M, O’Leary DH. Carotid intima-media thickness score, positive coronary artery calcium score, and incident coronary heart disease: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2017;6(1).
144. Bild DE, Bluemke DA, Burke GL, Detrano R, Diez Roux AV, Folsom AR, et al. Multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis: objectives and design. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2002;156(9):871–881.
145. Polak JF, O’Leary DH. Edge-detected common carotid artery intima-media thickness and incident coronary heart disease in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2015;4(6): e001492.
146. Polak JF, Szklo M, Kronmal RA, Burke GL, Shea S, Zavodni AE, et al. The value of carotid artery plaque and intima-media thickness for incident cardiovascular disease: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2013;2(2):e000087.
147. Polak JF, Dobkin GR, O’Leary DH, Wang AM, Cutler SS. Internal carotid artery stenosis: accuracy and reproducibility of color-Doppler-assisted duplex imaging. Radiology. 1989;173(3):793–798.
148. Hunink MG, Polak JF, Barlan MM, O’Leary DH. Detection and quantification of carotid artery stenosis: efficacy of various Doppler velocity parameters. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1993;160(3):619–625.
149. Polak JF, Funk LC, O’Leary DH. Inter-reader differences in common carotid artery intima-media thickness: implications for cardiovascular risk assessment and vascular age determination. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 2011;30(7):915–920.
150. Polak JF, Pencina MJ, Herrington D, O’Leary DH. Associations of edge-detected and manual-traced common carotid intima-media thickness measurements with Framingham risk factors: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2011;42(7):1912–1916.
151. Nambi V, Chambless L, Folsom AR, He M, Hu Y, Mosley T, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness and presence or absence of plaque improves prediction of coronary heart disease risk: the ARIC (Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities) study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2010;55(15):1600–1607.
152. Polak JF, Pencina MJ, Pencina KM, O’Donnell CJ, Wolf PA, D’Agostino RB Sr. Carotid-wall intima-media thickness and cardiovascular events. New England Journal of Medicine. 2011;365(3):213–221.
153. Roederer GO, Langlois YE, Jager KA, Primozich JF, Beach KW, Phillips DJ, et al. The natural history of carotid arterial disease in asymptomatic patients with cervical bruits. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1984;15(4):605–613.
154. Selhub J, Jacques PF, Bostom AG, D’Agostino RB, Wilson PW, Belanger AJ, et al. Association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial carotidartery stenosis [see comments]. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;332(5):286–291.
155. Cury RC, Abbara S, Achenbach S, Agatston A, Berman DS, Budoff MJ, et al. CAD-RADS: coronary artery disease - Reporting and data system: an expert consensus document of the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT), the American College of Radiology (ACR) and the North American Society for Cardiovascular Imaging (NASCI). Endorsed by the American College of Cardiology. Journal of the American College of Radiology. 2016;13(12 Pt A):1458–1466, e9.
156. Rosvall M, Janzon L, Berglund G, Engstrom G, Hedblad B. Incidence of stroke is related to carotid IMT even in the absence of plaque. Atherosclerosis. 2005;179(2):325–331.
157. Rundek T, Arif H, Boden-Albala B, Elkind MS, Paik MC, Sacco RL. Carotid plaque, a subclinical precursor of vascular events: the Northern Manhattan Study. Neurology. 2008;70(14):1200–1207.
158. Peters SA, den Ruijter HM, Palmer MK, Grobbee DE, Crouse JR 3rd, O’Leary DH, et al. Extensive or restricted ultrasound protocols to measure carotid intima-media thickness: analysis of completeness rates and impact on observed rates of change over time. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 2012;25(1):91–100.
159. Anonymous. High-resolution B-mode ultrasound reading methods in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) cohort. The ARIC Study Group. Journal of Neuroimaging. 1991;1(4):168–172.
160. Jerrard-Dunne P, Markus HS, Steckel DA, Buehler A, von Kegler S, Sitzer M. Early carotid atherosclerosis and family history of vascular disease: specific effects on arterial sites have implications for genetic studies. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2003;23(2):302–306.
161. Ali YS, Rembold KE, Weaver B, Wills MB, Tatar S, Ayers CR, et al. Prediction of major adverse cardiovascular events by age-normalized carotid intimal medial thickness. Atherosclerosis. 2006;187(1):186–190.
162. Anderson TJ, Charbonneau F, Title LM, Buithieu J, Rose MS, Conradson H, et al. Microvascular function predicts cardiovascular events in primary prevention: long-term results from the Firefighters and Their Endothelium (FATE) study. Circulation. 2011;123(2):163–169.
163. Spijkerman AMW, Henry RMA, Dekker JM, Nijpels G, Kostense PJ, Kors JA, et al. Prevalence of macrovascular disease amongst type 2 diabetic patients detected by targeted screening and patients newly diagnosed in general practice: the Hoorn Screening Study. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2004;256(5):429–436.
164. Salonen R, Salonen JT. Determinants of carotid intimamedia thickness: a population-based ultrasonography study in eastern Finnish men. Journal of Internal Medicine. 1991;229(3):225–231.
165. Rosvall M, Ostergren PO, Hedblad B, Isacsson SO, Janzon L, Berglund G. Occupational status, educational level, and the prevalence of carotid atherosclerosis in a general population sample of middle-aged Swedish men and women: results from the Malmo Diet and Cancer Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2000;152(4):334–346.
166. ter Avest E, Holewijn S, Bredie SJH, Stalenhoef AFH, de Graaf J. Remnant particles are the major determinant of an increased intima media thickness in patients with familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCH). Atherosclerosis. 2007;191(1):220–226.
167. Rundek T, Elkind MS, Pittman J, Boden-Albala B, Martin S, Humphries SE, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness is associated with allelic variants of stromelysin-1, interleukin-6, and hepatic lipase genes: the Northern Manhattan Prospective Cohort Study. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2002;33(5):1420–1423.
168. Okazaki S, Sakaguchi M, Miwa K, Furukado S, Yamagami H, Yagita Y, et al. Association of interleukin-6 with the progression of carotid atherosclerosis: a 9-year followup study. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 2014; 45(10):2924–2929.
169. Bots ML, Hofman A, De Jong PT, Grobbee DE. Common carotid intima-media thickness as an indicator of atherosclerosis at other sites of the carotid artery. The Rotterdam Study. Annals of Epidemiology. 1996;6(2):147–153.
170. Joakimsen O, Bonaa KH, Stensland-Bugge E. Reproducibility of ultrasound assessment of carotid plaque occurrence, thickness, and morphology. The Tromso Study. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 1997;28(11):2201–2207.
171. Friedman MH, Bargeron CB, Deters OJ, Hutchins GM, Mark FF. Correlation between wall shear and intimal thickness at a coronary artery branch. Atherosclerosis. 1987;68(1–2):27–33.